Virtual Learning Courses Online High School Diploma | Home Schooling | Accredited Online Middle School and Online High School | HomeSchooling: Active Learning
Active Learning
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Super Administrator on 17 November, 2009 11:30:00
What is Active Learning?
“Active learning is an antonym of passive or traditional learning, describes a
process whereby students take greater responsibility for their education, seek
out information and are more motivated. Moreover active learning includes
intelligent systems for quizzing, assessment, and evaluation”. Imran Aziz, CEO
RAD Federation
Important Elements of Online Education
Simply defined, online education refers to courses offered via the Internet. The
minimum requirement for students to participate in an online course is access to
a computer, the Internet, and motivation to succeed in a non-traditional
classroom.
*The Students *The facilitator *Curriculum *The technology
Critical dimensions of online teaching and learning which are as under:
*Task-Oriented *Constructionist *Conversational *Collaborative *Challenging *Responsive *Reflective
Task Oriented
The tasks we set for our learners define the essence of the interactive learning
environment. Whenever appropriate, these tasks should be authentic rather than
academic.
Example
Visual design students are producing web sites for schools, nursing homes, and
public service agencies that lack sufficient funding to develop their own web
resources.
Constructionist
Students need to create tangible knowledge representations that can be shared,
critiqued, and revised.
Example
Students in fields ranging from auto repair to zoo management are producing
digital portfolios throughout their study programs.
Conversational
Students must have ample time and secure spaces for in-depth discussions,
debates, arguments, and other forms of conversation.
Example
Learning is being constructed through new forms of conversation spaces such as
the online part of this conference and through resources.
Collaborative
Although still in the early stages of development, web-based tools for group
work and collaboration are preparing students for team work in 21st Century work
environments.
Example
Fashion design students are collaborating to produce online fashion shows with
QuickTime VR versions of their creations that are critiqued by international
experts.
Challenging
The notion that learning online is easy should be dispelled. Learning is
difficult and students should be provided with online cognitive tools to help
them.
Example
Throughout the VET sector, students are confronting problems as complex and
difficult as the ones they’ll face in the real world. Cognitive tools are
helping them tackle hard problems.
Responsive
In online learning communities, both teachers and students have a mutual
responsibility to respond quickly, accurately, and with respect.
Example
Supportive networks are being established that will continue to be refined
throughout a career, indeed throughout a life.
Reflective
Both teachers and learners must engage in thoughtful reflection and
metacognition. These are not instinctive activities for most people, but they
can be learned.
Example
Childhood studies students are keeping electronic journals to reflect upon the
children they teach, and their roles as advocates for children, especially the
under-privileged.
Learning Styles
According to researchers everyone has their own "style" for collecting and
organizing information into useful knowledge, and the online environment can be
particularly well suited to some learning styles and personality needs. For
example, introverted students often find it easier to communicate via
computer-mediated communication than in face-to-face situations.
Learning Style
*Visual/Verbal
Prefers to read information *Visual/Nonverbal
Uses graphics or diagrams to represent information *Auditory/Verbal
Prefers to listen to information *Tactile/Kinesthetic
Prefers physical hands-on experiences
Visual/Verbal Learners:
These people learn best when information is presented visually and in a written
form. In a classroom setting, they prefer instructors who use visual aids (i.e.
black board, PowerPoint presentation) to list the essential points of a lecture
in order to provide them with an outline to follow during the lecture. They
benefit from information obtained from textbooks and class notes. These learners
like to study by themselves in quiet environments. They visualize information in
their "minds' eyes" in order to remember something. The online environment is
especially appropriate for visual/verbal learners because most of the
information for a course is presented in written form.
Visual/Nonverbal Learners:
These people learn best when information is presented visually and in a picture
or design format. In a classroom setting, they benefit from instructors who
supplement their lectures with materials such as film, video, maps and diagrams.
They relate well to information obtained from the images and charts in
textbooks. They tend prefer to work alone in quiet environments. They visualize
an image of something in their mind when trying to remember it. These learners
may also be artistic and enjoy visual art and design. The online environment is
well suited for this type of learner because graphical representations of
information can help them remember concepts and ideas. Graphical information can
be presented using charts, tables, graphs, and images.
Auditory/Verbal Learners:
These people learn best when information is presented aurally. In a classroom
setting, they benefit from listening to lecture and participating in-group
discussions. They also benefit from obtaining information from audiotape. When
trying to remember something, they often repeat it out loud and can mentally
"hear" the way the information was explained to them. They learn best when
interacting with others in a listening/speaking activity. Online learning
environments can complement these learners' style. Although most information is
presented visually (either written or graphically), group participation and
collaborative activities are accomplished well online. In addition, streaming
audio and computer conferencing can be incorporated into an online course to
best meet the learning style of these students.
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners:
These people learn best when doing a physical "hands-on" activity. In the
classroom, they prefer to learn new materials in lab setting where they can
touch and manipulate materials. They learn best in physically active learning
situations. They benefit from instructors who use in-class demonstrations,
hands-on learning experiences, and fieldwork outside the classroom. Online
environments can provide learning opportunities for tactile/kinesthetic
learners. Simulations with 3-Dimensional graphics can replicate physical
demonstrations. Lab sessions can be conducted either at predetermined locations
or at home and then discussed online. Also, outside fieldwork can be
incorporated into the coursework, with ample online discussion both preceding
and following the experience. Finally, the online environment is well suited for
presentation and discussion of either group or individual projects and
activities.
Instructional Strategies for Different Learning Styles in Active Learning
Environment:
Traditionally, in a teacher-centered classroom, instructors control their
environment because they have a monopoly on information. In an online course,
with instant access to vast resources of data and information, students are no
longer totally dependent on faculty for knowledge.
Of the many instructional strategies available for use in the Active learning
environment, most have not been developed specifically for online instruction,
but are currently used in traditional classrooms, and can be successfully
adapted for facilitating Active learning.
After Bergman & Moore (1990) who developed a list of Strategies for Interactive
Learning, RADF gave new Instructional Strategies named as “Instructional
Strategies for Different Learning Styles in Active Learning Environment”.
According to RAD Federation Instructional Strategies could be:
*Learning Contracts
*Exposition *Drill/Practice *Demonstration/Example *Metaphor *Small Group
Work *Discussion *Project *Lecture *Collaborative Learning *Self-Directed
Learning *Case Study *Mentorship *Forum
Learning contracts
Learning contracts connect educational needs to individual student needs and are
useful when there is diversity in learner needs and interests in a class. A
learning contract is a formal agreement written by a learner which details what
will be learned, how the learning will be accomplished, the period of time
involved, and the specific evaluation criteria to be used in judging the
completion of the learning. Learning contracts help the educator and learner
share the responsibility for learning.
Contract learning can bring about many practical benefits, including deeper
involvement of the learner in the learning activities, which they themselves
have been involved in planning. Once a learner passes through the stage of
confusion and anxiety associated with developing a contract, he/she will get
excited about carrying out their own plans. Another benefit of utilizing
contract learning is an increase of accountability, since the learning contract
provides more functional and validated evidence of the learning outcomes. The
contract also provides a means for the learner to receive continuous feedback
regarding progress toward accomplishing learning objectives.
Learning contracts can be extremely effective in the online environment. Because
physically meeting with the class to discuss learning goals, objectives, and
expectations is not possible online, instructors must be very clear and concise
in what is expected from the learner. Likewise, the learner must also be clear
about what he/she expects from the instructor and the course. A learning
contract can facilitate negotiation and clarity of learning goals and outcomes.
Sample learning contracts can be placed on a web page for the student to use as
examples, and students can be encouraged to brainstorm ideas for learning
contracts with their online peers as well as negotiate the final contract with
the instructor through utilizing email or online conferencing.
Exposition
Presenting the content through words or media with minimal intervention from
the user.
Drill/Practice
An organized set of activities or exercises that users can try, test, and
review until satisfied.
Demonstration/Example
Showing real-world artifacts, situations, operations, and procedures that serve
as models or incentives for the viewer.
Metaphor
Representation of concepts that cannot be demonstrated or they are especially
complex with simpler, familiar and often, more entertaining illustrations or
dramatizations.
Lecture
The lecture is one of the most frequently used instructional methods in adult
education. It assumes the educator to be the expert and is an efficient way of
disseminating information. Most educators agree that the purpose of lectures is
to lay foundations as the student works through the subject, and good lecturers
know their students and develop their lectures according to the students'
needs. Most importantly, lectures are most effective when used in combination
with other instructional strategies.
Online lectures can be presented in a variety of ways. Lecture notes can be
placed on a web page for the learner to review. Notes can be put together in a
packet and either downloaded from the Internet or sent via snail mail. Lectures
can also be presented via audio or video over the Internet. Also, links to
related resources and other Web sites can be embedded in online lectures. Online
lectures are likely to be shorter and more to the point than lectures in live
classrooms, which often extend far beyond the attention span of the audience.
Short lectures provide enough information to serve as a basis for further
reading, research, or other learning activities. Another obvious advantage of
online lectures is that they are readily available for students to revisit again
and again as needed.
Discussion
Discussion is the instructional strategy most favored by adult learners because
it is interactive and encourages active, participatory learning. The discussion
format encourages learners to analyze alternative ways of thinking and acting
and assists learners in exploring their own experiences so they can become
better critical thinkers. The discussion is often the heart of an online course.
The Internet offers several modes for discussion including mailing lists
(listservs), which focus on particular topics and online conferencing programs.
Both of these options utilize asynchronous communication. Synchronous (real
time) communication can be offered by utilizing chat rooms or text-based virtual
reality environments, better known as Multi-user Domains (MUDs) or Multi-user
Object Oriented Environments (MOOs).
Self-directed learning
Self-directed learning is learning initiated and directed by the learner and can
include self-paced, independent, and individualized learning as well as
self-instruction. Whatever terminology is used, self-directed learning places
the responsibility for learning directly on the learner. Learners who take the
initiative in learning and are proactive learners learn more and better than
passive learners (reactive learners). Proactive learners enter into learning
more purposefully and with greater motivation. They also tend to retain and make
use of what they learn better and longer than reactive learners. The independent
learner is one who is more involved and active within the learning process.
Online learning supports the self-directed learner in pursuing individualized,
self-paced learning activities. The learner, working at a computer at a
convenient time and pace, is able to search and utilize the vast resources of
the Internet research nearly any topic imaginable. Students can visit libraries,
museums and various institutes world-wide, talk to professionals, access recent
research, and read newspapers and peer reviewed scholarly journals online.
Students can write collaboratively with peers and even publish written and
multimedia products on web pages.
Mentorship
The aim of mentorship is to promote learner development drawing out and giving
form to what the student already knows. A mentor serves as a guide rather than a
provider of knowledge and serves the function of introducing students to the new
world, interpreting it for them, and helping them to learn what they need to
know to function in it. Mentors in education teach by interpreting the
environment and modeling expected behaviors. They also support, challenge, and
provide vision for their students.
A major benefit to online mentorship is the opportunity for frequent, convenient
communication between mentor and student. Weekly or even daily journals and
communications can be sent between mentor and student via e-mail, providing an
ongoing "dialogue" which supports the development of the mentor relationship and
offers numerous opportunities for timely feedback on student questions, concerns
and issues.
Small group work
In small groups learners can discuss content, share ideas, and solve problems.
They present their own ideas as well as consider ideas put forth by others. In
this way, they can be exposed to a variety of viewpoints on a given subject.
There are many small group formats that encourage and provide opportunities for
interaction:
The discussion group: Allows learners to reflect on a subject under discussion
and present their views. Discussion within the small group is often on high
intellectual levels - specifically analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Guided design: Encourages interaction in small groups. Here the focus is on
developing learners' decision-making skills as well as on teaching specific
concepts and principles. Participants work to solve open-ended problems which
require outside class work to gather information. This format encourages
learners to think logically, communicate ideas, and apply steps in a
decision-making process. Learners are also required to apply the information
they have learned, exchange ideas, and reflect on suggested solutions. The
instructor's role is to act as a consultant to the groups.
Role-playing: This is another format available for use with small groups and
involves recreating a situation relating to a real-world problem in which
participants act out various roles. This promotes an understanding of other
people's positions and their attitudes as well as the procedures that might be
used for diagnosing and solving problems. Role-playing can be used to simulate
real-life group work situations and can help learners gain a fuller
understanding of a problem or situation.
Games: Requiring two or more groups to compete while attempting to meet a set
of objectives is another form of small group learning. The game follows a set of
rules and procedures and information is provided which requires decision-making.
Most instructional games reflect typical real-life situations. The rules,
procedures, and objectives of the game should be clear and concise.
Online learning environments offer several distinct benefits for small group
work. First, they allow small groups to work independently while still having
access to the instructor. In some cases where it is difficult for all members of
an online class to meet synchronously, small groups can be organized according
to their time zones, making it possible to find a convenient time to meet
synchronously. Larger groups can benefit by communicating asynchronously via
conferencing programs. A second benefit of online environments for group work
is that they equalize control among participants. Factors such as geography,
gender, or disabilities do not disadvantage learners in this environment.
Finally, the instructor is able to respond directly to questions and needs of
particular groups without taking the time of other groups.
Project
Online projects give students an opportunity to pursue their special interests
and can be done individually or within groups. Projects also provide students
with practical experience and a sense of accomplishment. Using projects in a
learning activity makes the learning more relevant to the learners. Products can
be shared with others in the class and critiqued. Many times an individual
project is only critiqued by the facilitator, but by sharing individual projects
with other participants, the learner has the opportunity to obtain more diverse
viewpoints and feedback.
Many of the instructional strategies discussed above can be considered group
projects. Group projects can include simulations, role-playing, case studies,
problem solving exercises, group collaborative work, debates, small group
discussion, and brainstorming. As with individual projects, participants’
in-group projects should receive peer feedback to expose them to diverse
viewpoints. With independent and group projects learners pursue special
interests, write or create for an audience, and publish or present their
findings and conclusions via the Internet. The Internet provides the potential
of receiving feedback from experts or interested peers outside the course by
accessing the project online.
Collaborative learning
Collaborative learning is the process of getting two or more students to work
together to learn. Students often work in small groups composed of participants
with differing ability levels and using a variety of learning activities to
master material initially developed by an instructor, or construct knowledge on
substantive issues. Each member of the team is responsible for learning what is
taught and for helping teammates learn.
Collaborative learning methods are now used in over a third of higher education
courses, and their use has increased in the past six years more than any other
learning method, according to a recent survey conducted by UCLA's Higher
Education Research Institute. Employers want workers with collaborative skills
and are looking for graduates of educational programs that teach these skills.
Collaborative learning can be more effective than interpersonal competitive and
individualistic efforts in promoting cognitive development, self-esteem, and
positive student-student relationships.
Online learning models are natural environments for collaborative learning, but
they are not collaborative learning environments by definition. Learners may
interact with other participants without collaborating, for example when
receiving on-line tutorial help. Learning activities have to be specifically and
somewhat carefully designed to work effectively.
Case study
The case study is a teaching strategy which requires learners to draw upon their
past experiences, is participatory and has action components which are links to
future experience. The key to a successful case study is the selection of an
appropriate problem situation, which is relevant both to the interests and
experience level of learners and to the concepts being taught. The case report
should include facts regarding the problem, the environmental context, and the
characters of the people involved in the case. It should be factual, but also
contain the opinions and views of the people involved. Learners should have
access to the problem solution, but not until they have reached their own
conclusions and can then compare their results with the actual decision taken to
resolve the problem.
The case analysis can be carried out with the learners working independently or
in groups One advantage of using the case method is that it emphasizes practical
thinking and it assists learners in identifying principles after examining the
facts of the case and then applying those principles to new situations Case
analysis is equally effective when used in combination with other instructional
strategies.
In the online environment case studies can be presented on web pages and
discussed in conferencing groups. Class groups as collaborative projects can
develop cases. In addition, students and educators to contribute data,
information and expert advice to case development and analysis can tap the vast
resources of the Internet.
Forum
The forum is an open discussion carried on by one or more resource people and an
entire group. The moderator guides the discussion and the audience raises and
discusses issues, makes comments, offers information, or asks questions of the
resource person(s) and each other. There are two variations of the forum: the
panel and the symposium.
The panel is usually a group of three to six people who sit in the presence of
an audience and have a purposeful conversation on a topic in which they have
specialized knowledge. Guided by a moderator, the panel is informal in nature,
but allows for no audience participation. The symposium is a series of
presentations given by two to five people different aspects of the same theme or
closely related themes. Although the symposium is formal in nature, questions
from the audience are encouraged following the presentations. An obvious benefit
of the symposium is that it gives learners exposure to a variety of experts'
viewpoints and offers an opportunity for the audience to ask questions.
Because online environment facilitates group communication, it is ideal for the
types of information exchange typical in forums. In fact, the forum can be more
convenient and effective in the online environment than in the traditional
classroom because speakers, experts and moderator can participate without having
to travel or even be available at a particular time. Both synchronous and
asynchronous communication can be utilized to support online learning forums.
RADF researchers also evaluated that there are also alternatives of online
Lectures, which would be beneficial if we implement prior to shift totally to
the virtual university. Methods of information dissemination that can be used in
an online environment are listed below. Ways that each method can be used have
been listed, as well as the benefits and possible drawbacks associated with each
one. Facilitators need to be aware of problems that can arise as they use these
technologies. For example, while the "lecturette" can be an effective online
tool, long lectures are not recommended as well as exercises that don't require
students to comment on each other's work.
*Textbook *Audio *Software *Newsgroups *Websites *Offline Interview *Case
Analysis *Video *Guest Speaker *Web Articles *Listservs *Chat *Online
Interview *Team Project
Textbooks:
They are used for the following purposes:
*Assign a segment of a chapter to an individual. *Assign a segment
of a chapter to a team. *Provide discussion questions that require students to
summarize the reading, or ask students to come up with their own discussion
questions. *Provide discussion questions that require students to
synthesize the material. *Provide an activity that requires students to
apply the information from the reading.
Benefits
*They are relatively inexpensive. *Students do not need any
additional equipment to use the material. *Students can go back and
retrieve information when they need it. *Some learners need the hardcopy
for reading and studying.
Drawbacks
*They can only be distributed by mail or retailing network. *They
can convey information only by written language and figures. *It is
impossible to give direct feedback to or ask questions of the author.
Video tapes / TV Programs
Basic concept of the course content subject or resources for the virtual
classroom discussion can be provided through video. Whole films can be used in
online courses in ESL, literature, any foreign language, creative writing, etc.
Students can watch the film outside of "class" and then discuss/critique it in
the virtual classroom. During online discussions, students can compare the film
to the book, discuss character profiles, plot, theme, symbolism, historical
context, etc.
Benefits
*Facilitator can distribute information such as visual or procedural concepts
that are hard to express in textbooks. For example: in a class of manufacturing
management, a short film showing a real factory is effective for understanding
certain concepts and for making discussion questions. *Supplemental video
may help learners whose basic learning style is not text-based. *If all the
students view the same material, discussion questions or projects can be
assigned to generate discussion on the topic and the information will be
presented equally as well as using a textbook or related articles. *If
broadcasting through web, wave or satellite is available, the information can be
distributed asynchronously, and each student can view the material at his or her
convenience. *TV broadcasts can be recorded for later study or review.
Drawbacks
*Students are required to have a TV set and/or a VCR. *Some
programs are only available at certain designated times. *VCR tapes can
only be distributed by mail or retailing network. *When distributed via the
WWW, video files are extremely large, require long download times, and use
substantial memory.
Audio Tapes / Radio Programs
Basic concept of the course content subject or resources for virtual classroom
discussion can be provided.
Benefits
*The cost and technical requirements are less than for video and/or TV.
*Audio files can be downloaded from the Internet. *If all the students
listen to the same material, then discussion questions or projects can be
assigned to generate discussion on the topic, the information will be presented
equally as well as using a textbook or related articles. *Radio
broadcasts can be recorded for later study.
Drawbacks
*Audio files lack a visual component. *Although much smaller than
video files, audio files are quite large and slow to download.
Guest Speakers
Guest speakers can be invited to hold either a synchronous chat session with the
class, or post a lecture and be available for 2-3 days to answer questions from
the group.
Benefits
*Students can learn about what is happening today in the real world
pertaining to the course content subject. *The guest speaker is
able to bring outside resources to the course.
Drawbacks
*It may be difficult to find an appropriate person to invite as a guest speaker
because he/she must know the basic system and flow of online learning. *For
synchronous chat sessions: With more than two people chatting, it can become
confusing for those who cannot follow several streams of thought at once. *It
is difficult to coordinate a session where all students can participate (time
differences, inflexible schedules, etc.). *Interactive CD-ROM’s /
Interactive PC software
Benefits
*The material can be used in a self-paced manner. *As with video,
material, which is not easily adapted to text format, can still be covered
in the course. *Programs can contain short tutorials for specific
skills/information that students need to know, then require them to apply that
knowledge in exercises. *Software can be distributed through the
Internet.
Drawbacks
*Students must have the software in hand to use it (download or purchase
on CD) *Learners must know HOW to use the software.
Articles from Web Sites
Each participant finds outside, related articles on the Internet; reads,
summarizes, and critiques the article. Other participants can choose to access
the article themselves, and/or comment on their classmate's critique. Students
can then comment on other people's comments. A lot of valid information can come
from this activity.
Benefits
*It allows students to choose what to focus on and take control of their
own learning experience. *The number of articles and amount of
information, which students can access, is unlimited. *It brings
outside resources into the course. *It provides participants with an extensive
list of summaries of related resources that they can choose to read, or archive
for later use. *Students are learning and practicing research
skills--searching, summarizing, and demonstrating what has been learned,
integrating new information into already-learned material.
Drawbacks
*The information at some Web sites may not be reliable.
Newsgroups
This includes subscribing to or even just browsing newsgroups on topics related
to course content.
Benefits
*There is a large quantity of material generated every day. *Most
newsgroups have excellent archives of previously posted material.
Drawbacks
*There is often a high percentage of "noise" (garbage) to sift through.
*An old authenticity is questionable
Listservs
These are focused email discussions on topics supplemental to course work.
Benefits
*Discussion lists exists on virtually every academic subject and/or
related field. *Discussion provides an exchange of ideas with people not
enrolled in the class who are, nevertheless, good resources on a given topic.
Drawbacks
*Extra reading time is required due to the large number of messages
generated by a busy discussion list.
Interactive Web Sites
These include web sites where users can read information updates, view stills
and video, and listen to audio related to their course work. For example, the
ESL Cafe puts ESL students in touch with other language learners around the
world as well as offers expert help in grammar and vocabulary and a chance for
students to publish their writing online.
Benefits
*Students have direct contact with other learners *Students have
direct contact with a variety of teachers and are exposed to different
teaching styles. *Students have "real-life" communication through email
and chat with other learners and teachers.
Drawbacks
*This activity may distract learners from other study tasks.
Chatting
These are online discussions held by two or more participants synchronously.
Benefits
*A weekly chat added to a course could provide a forum for lively
interaction among participants. *Instructors can hold "office
hours" online and students can get immediate feedback.
Drawbacks
*With more than two people chatting, it can become confusing for those who
cannot follow several streams of thought at once. *It is difficult to
coordinate a session where all students can participate (time differences,
inflexible schedules, etc.).
Off-line Interview
Students are assigned to interview a professional, expert, or some other
individual who has a meaningful relationship to the material begin discussed,
and then relate the information gained from the interview to the group.
Benefits
*Students can talk about people already involved in the field they are studying,
and then broaden their knowledge base about the subject even more.
Drawbacks
*Not all the students may have access to an appropriate interviewee.
Online Interview
This is an interview via e-mail or chat. Students communicate with a person
through e-mail to gather necessary information, and then report back to the VC.
Benefits
*Students can interview anyone on the globe.
Drawbacks
*Still it may be difficult to find an appropriate interviewee.
Case Analysis
Case analysis used in conjunction with current real world situations allows for
the material content to be transcribed into practical applications: from theory
to concept to application.
Benefits
*This activity generates critical thinking and utilizes the student's
problem solving skills.
Drawbacks
*Because higher-level thinking skills are needed, this activity may not be
appropriate for less mature students.
Team Projects
Students may be assigned to go into their work place to conduct interviews,
gather information, and map processes. Together the group can compare and
contrast the data and develop a report or project plan.
Benefits
*Current information and application-based learning can be brought into
the online process. *This activity allows for collaborative
learning.
Drawbacks
*Sometimes certain team members don't do their part, which places an extra
burden on the others.
Questions Types
RADF understands the fact that test questions should be designed to evaluate
students' ability to think at any of the six different levels of abstraction as
described by Bloom, and often the same content information can be assessed at
different levels of cognition.
*Recognition Questions (knowledge - simple recall) *Recall Questions
(Comprehension - shows understanding) *Application Questions (use the
information in a new context) *Analysis Questions (connecting patterns,
identifying hidden meanings) *Synthesis Questions (relate knowledge from
several areas) *Evaluation Questions (assess value of theories)
Active Learning Strategies and the Lecture
There are a large number of strategies, which may be utilized in the development
of an active learning environment. The extent to which a faculty member must
make changes to his or her current educational techniques depend upon the
strategies he or she selects. It is possible to incorporate procedures into the
didactic lecture format; however, care must be taken to ensure that the
educational process is successful. Alternatively, the instructor may elect to
discard the lecture format and provide an alternative learning environment for
the student.
Questions
One way to increase student participation within the lecture is for the
instructor to ask questions. However, successful utilization of this technique
is not as simple as it might first appear. Questions are a valuable teaching
strategy when thoughtfully implemented. They are detrimental to student learning
when poorly employed by the instructor. Questions, which are used to achieve
well-defined educational objectives, help emphasize the process of learning.
Effective questioning skills can be learned, but the instructor must make the
commitment to develop and practice these skills. In addition, the attitudes,
behaviors and interpersonal skills of the instructor will determine the success
of this technique as with other interactive learning methodologies. Students
quickly perceive behaviors on the part of the instructor, which are inconsistent
with, or negate, an interactive learning process. The student must feel free to
ask and answer questions without the fear of an adverse response if he or she
should provide an incorrect response. If this is the case, the benefits to
students will be quickly lost as they withdraw from the process.
Advanced planning on the part of the instructor is required if this educational
technique is to be successful. Key questions are planned in advance in order to
provide structure and direction for the students. It is important that questions
not be based on trivial information or used as fillers. It is necessary to
decide in advance the content upon which the questions will be based and the
purpose of each question. Questions should pertain to material, which is
fundamental to the concepts or principles being taught. It is important to
determine at what level and where in the lecture the question will be asked
before formulating the actual question(s). To do this, the instructor must be
aware of the types of questions which can be posed, the cognitive level to which
they pertain, and when to use each type of question. Lower level cognitive
questions evaluate student preparation and comprehension through review and
summarization techniques. High-level cognitive questions encourage critical
thinking, problem solving and stimulate students to assume greater
responsibility for seeking information on their own. While it is important to
utilize questions of all cognitive levels, the greater proportion of questions
should aim to develop the cognitive skills of comprehension, application,
analysis, and synthesis.
The instructor should design each question so that students are required to
utilize the very thinking skills the instructor wishes them to develop. The
instructor's desire should be to stimulate discussions and other activities
within the classroom. It is important to ensure that the questions are specific
in nature, well phrased and concise. The task must be clear to the students.
However, at the same time, there should be some flexibility in the question and
its presentation. This will avoid students being forced into a guessing game for
the expected answer. Open-ended questions stimulate student participation in the
process. They may have more than one acceptable answer, many of which are not
anticipated by the instructor . Until the instructor is skilled in the process,
it is advisable to write the questions down in the order in which they will be
posed within the lecture. Try to anticipate in advance what the student
responses might be and your reactions to them. This enables the instructor to
ensure that the task will, in fact, be clear to the student. It will also be
necessary to decide upon a strategy if there are no answers offered, in order to
turn the situation into a learning experience.
A common problem, which occurs when questioning students, is the lack of time,
provided to them in order that they may collect their thoughts and respond. The
instructor should provide a wait time of at least 10-20 seconds depending on the
type of question posed. When students do respond, the instructor must be
interested in the student and his or her response. It would be appropriate for
the instructor to develop active listening skills to facilitate the process. Do
not respond too quickly to an answer. However, it is imperative that the
instructor responds to all answers in a positive fashion even if they are
incorrect. Positive reinforcement, over time, will increase the students'
willingness and desire to participate in the process. Make sure that you, and
the other students, understand the response. If necessary, ask for
clarification. Similarly, if the initial response appears to be superficial, the
instructor may use a questioning technique called probing to determine if the
student understands the material. The probe can be directed to the student who
provided the initial response or to another student within the class. Probes may
also be used to analyze student statements, help students deduce relationships
or require a student to clarify or elaborate on his or her comments. If a
response seems out of context, the instructor should pose additional questions
to refocus the students. This technique may also be utilized to redirect
students to another topic during the lecture. If there is no response, or an
incorrect answer is given, the instructor should use rephrasing techniques and
not answer the question. In rephrasing, the question may be reworded or
clarified, additional information provided, or the original question can be
broken down into smaller components. The intent is to turn the situation into a
learning experience for the students.
Questions can be utilized in small or large classes to a greater or lesser
extent within the lecture period. In some lecture settings, the use of questions
is the primary teaching technique. Most readers will be familiar with the
Socratic technique, which was depicted within the movie The Paper Chase. This
technique is an instructor-directed form of instruction in which questions are
used as the sole method of teaching. The technique is assumed to help emphasize
the learning process by placing students in the position of having to recognize
the limits of their knowledge, and hopefully, motivating them to learn. Care
should be taken to ensure that learning occurs due to an increase in the
students' interest in the subject and not through fear. The Socratic method
consists of the use of systematic questions, inductive reasoning, and the
formulation of universal definitions. Students are presented with a scenario and
the instructor systematically poses a series of predetermined questions. The
questions are designed to channel the students' thought processes along
predetermined paths. The students are required to utilize information that they
possess to solve difficult problems or issues posed by the questions.
Subsequently, inductive reasoning techniques are used to help students move
beyond the details of the scenario to understand its broader implications and
the basic concepts to which they portend. Once the general concepts are
understood, the instructor uses questions to help the students develop a general
explanation or universal definition of the concept(s). The idea is for the
students to develop an explanation, which would cover all possible scenarios. In
doing so, the students are able to demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of
the material. This technique can be a very effective teaching methodology, but
it requires significant preparation and commitment on the part of the instructor
if it is to be successful.
Modified Lectures
The instructor may utilize other modifications to the lecture format in order to
increase student participation in the learning process. One technique is termed
as "pausing for enhanced retention and comprehension." The instructor pauses
every 12-18 minutes and provides students with 2-3 minutes to work in dyads in
order to clarify and assimilate the material just presented. The process is
reinforced by a 3-minute period at the end of the lecture in which students are
asked to record everything they can remember through free recall. It has been
demonstrated that student performance on subsequent examinations is
significantly improved upon when this technique is used.
Guided lectures are designed to help students synthesize lecture material and
develop their note-taking skills. Students should be provided with the lecture
objectives in advance of the session. In this setting students are required to
listen to a 20-30 minute lecture and not take notes. At the end of the session,
the students are given 5 minutes to record everything he or she can recall. At
the end of this period, the students are asked to form dyads or triads,
reconstruct and discuss the lecture, and in the process complete their notes.
During this time, the instructor is available to clarify any issue or question,
which might arise within the groups. The entire process can be facilitated
through the use of study guides, well-designed questions and pre- and
post-session mini-tests.
Feedback lectures are designed around a supplementary study guide that provides
the students with learning objectives, assigned readings, pre- and post-tests,
and in some instances, an outline of the lecture notes. The format of the
contact session consists of two 20-minute mini-lectures, which are separated by
a study session. During the study session, students form dyads or triads and
discuss the questions provided by the instructor or the study guide.
Eighty-eight percent of students surveyed indicated that they preferred this
format over the straight lecture. The disadvantage to the instructor is the
extensive planning and preparation required to implement this teaching strategy.
Responsive lectures provide a forum in which students may generate open-ended
questions for the instructor on topics pertinent to the subject. These sessions
can be held on an occasional to weekly basis depending upon course structure and
available contact time. In the initial phase of the lecture, the students
generate a series of open-ended questions and a reason for each question's
importance. The instructor lists the questions on the board or overhead as they
are generated. Once this is complete, the students are asked to rank the
questions in order of importance from their perspective. The ranked questions
then become the outline for the remainder of the lecture. This type of
educational forum can place significant demands upon the instructor and is not
for the faint of heart. If the instructor finds that the process is too wide
open for his or her taste, then the students can be asked to generate or submit
the questions in the preceding lecture period. Alternatively, the instructor can
stop halfway through the lecture and ask the students to form groups of 3-4
individuals. Five minutes is then provided for the groups to each decide upon
one question which they would like the instructor to answer. This technique
permits the students to sort the information and become actively involved in
discussions, thinking and peer teaching.
Brainstorming
The instructor may use brainstorming techniques in order that students may
participate in, and help create, the lecture. This technique is less time
efficient for information transfer than the lecture, but it actively engages
students in the learning process. The instructor must have a clear idea of what
he or she wishes to be revealed or discovered in the process and plan
accordingly. In some instances the instructor may need to interject points in
order to keep the process on track. However, it is important to guard against
excessive manipulation of the process once it has started. In addition, the
instructor must be flexible enough to depart from his or her preconceived ideas
when necessary. The instructor initiates the process by asking students to tell
him or her everything they know about a topic. Everything goes, and no
evaluations are made of the suggestions or comments put forward by the students.
The instructor records the points, as they are made, on a chalkboard or on an
overhead projector. During the process, the ideas are then categorized or placed
in groupings by the instructor with the students' guidance. The lecture becomes
a process of arranging and reordering ideas and concepts regarding the topic
into a coherent and rational pattern. The final creation reflects what the
students and instructor consider important about the topic. During the lecture,
the students have spent their time thinking about and organizing the salient
concepts or points of the topic as opposed to simply recording information.
Tests and Quizzes
Research has demonstrated that after a lecture, students recall 62% of the
information. However, students recall only 45% after 3-4 days and in 8 weeks
only 24% of the information is recalled. If a quiz or exam was administered
after the lecture, recall was doubled at the 8-week period (5). It is
interesting that many faculty members appear to ignore the potential impact,
which tests can have upon learning. This may relate to the fact that tests or
exams require time which faculty would prefer to, or must, allocate to other
activities.
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